Introduction 1
1 Development of the PC 5
Computer History: Before Personal Computers 5
Timeline 5
Electronic Computers 10
Modern Computers 10
From Tubes to Transistors 11
Integrated Circuits 13
History of the PC 14
Birth of the Personal Computer 14
The IBM Personal Computer 15
The PC Industry 30 Years Later 16
2 PC Components, Features, and System Design 19
What Is a PC? 19
Who Controls PC Software? 20
Who Controls PC Hardware? 23
White-Box Systems 26
System Types 26
System Components 28
3 Processor Types and Specifications 29
Microprocessor History 29
The First Microprocessor 29
PC Processor Evolution 32
16-Bit to 64-Bit Architecture Evolution 34
Processor Specifications 35
Data I/O Bus 42
Address Bus 42
Internal Registers (Internal Data Bus) 44
Processor Modes 44
Processor Benchmarks 49
Comparing Processor Performance 49
Cache Memory 53
Processor Features 60
System Management Mode (SMM) 60
Superscalar Execution 61
MMX Technology 62
Dynamic Execution 64
Dual Independent Bus Architecture 65
HT Technology 65
Multicore Technology 66
Hardware-Assisted Virtualization Support 68
Processor Manufacturing 69
Processor Re-Marking 74
PGA Chip Packaging 74
Single Edge Contact and Single Edge Processor Packaging 75
Processor Socket and Slot Types 75
Socket 478 78
Socket LGA775 79
Socket LGA1156 80
Socket LGA1366 81
Socket LGA1155 82
Socket LGA2011 83
Socket 939 and 940 83
Socket AM2/AM2+/AM3/AM3+ 84
Socket F (1207FX) 86
Socket FM1 86
Socket FM2 86
CPU Operating Voltages 87
Math Coprocessors (Floating-Point Units) 87
Processor Bugs and Steppings 88
Processor Code Names 88
P1 (086) Processors 89
P2 (286) Processors 90
P3 (386) Processors 91
P4 (486) Processors 92
P5 (586) Processors 93
AMD-K5 96
Intel P6 (686) Processors 96
Pentium Pro Processors 97
Pentium II Processors 97
Pentium III 99
Celeron 100
Intel Pentium 4 Processors 101
Pentium 4 Extreme Edition 104
Intel Pentium D and Pentium Extreme Edition 106
Intel Core Processors 108
Intel Core 2 Family 108
Intel (Nehalem) Core i Processors 110
AMD K6 Processors 114
NexGen Nx586 114
AMD-K6 Series 116
AMD K7 Processors 117
AMD Athlon 117
AMD Duron 118
AMD Athlon XP 118
Athlon MP 120
AMD K8 Processors 120
AMD Athlon 64 and 64 FX 120
AMD Sempron 124
AMD Athlon X2, 64 X2, and 64 FX 125
AMD K10 Processors (Phenom, Phenom II, Athlon II, Athlon X2, Sempron) 126
AMD “Bulldozer” and “Piledriver” FX Processors 128
AMD Fusion/HSA (Heterogeneous Systems Architecture) APUs 131
Processor Upgrades 132
Overclocking 133
Quartz Crystals 134
Modern PC Clocks 136
Overclocking Tips 138
Unlocking Cores 139
Bus Speeds and Multipliers 140
Processor Cooling 142
Heatsinks 143
Liquid Cooling 148
Thermally Advantaged Chassis 149
Processor Troubleshooting Techniques 151
4 Motherboards and Buses 155
Motherboard Form Factors 155
Obsolete Form Factors 156
ATX and Other Modern Form Factors 167
Processor Sockets/Slots 178
Chipsets 181
Chipset Evolution 181
Intel Chipsets 183
Intel Chipset Model Numbers 184
Intel Integrated Graphics Architecture 185
AMD Integrated Graphics Architecture 185
Traditional North/South Bridge Architecture 185
Hub Architecture 187
HyperTransport and Other Processor/Chipset Interconnects 188
Intel’s Early 386/486 Chipsets 190
Fifth-Generation (P5 Pentium Class) Chipsets 190
Sixth-Generation (P6 Pentium Pro/II/III Class) Chipsets 192
Seventh/Eighth-Generation (Pentium 4/D, Core2, and Core i) Chipsets 195
Intel 915 Family 202
Intel 925X Family 203
Intel 945 Express Family 203
Intel 955X and 975X Family 204
Intel 96x Series 204
Intel 3x and 4x Series Chipsets 205
Intel 5x Series Chipsets 208
Intel 6x Series Chipsets 211
Intel 7x Series Chipsets 213
Third-Party Chipsets for Intel Processors 215
SiS Chipsets 215
ULi Electronics Chipsets 215
ATI Chipsets 216
VIA Chipsets 216
NVIDIA Chipsets for Intel Processors 216
Chipsets for AMD Processors 217
AMD Athlon Chipsets 217
AMD Athlon 64 Chipsets 218
AMD 8000 (8151) Chipset 219
AMD (Formerly ATI) Chipsets for Athlon 64, Sempron, Phenom 220
Third-Party Chipsets for AMD Processors 226
VIA Chipsets 226
SiS Chipsets 227
NVIDIA Chipsets 227
Super I/O Chips 228
Motherboard Connectors 228
System Bus Types, Functions, and Features 239
The Processor Bus (FSB) 245
Types of I/O Buses 245
The ISA Bus 245
The Micro Channel Bus 246
The EISA Bus 246
Local Buses (VESA, PCI, PCI Express, AGP) 246
System Resources 254
Interrupts 254
DMA Channels 259
I/O Port Addresses 259
Motherboard Selection Criteria (Knowing What to Look For) 260
Chipset Documentation 262
5 BIOS 263
BIOS Basics 263
Motherboard ROM BIOS 267
ROM Hardware 267
ROM Shadowing 269
ROM Chip Types 269
ROM BIOS Manufacturers 273
BIOS Hardware/Software 274
Upgrading the BIOS 274
Where to Get Your BIOS Update 275
Determining Your BIOS Version 275
Checking the BIOS Date 275
Backing Up Your BIOS 276
Backing Up Your BIOS Setup (CMOS RAM) Settings 276
Upgrading a Flash BIOS 277
Motherboard CMOS RAM Addresses 285
Preboot Environment 287
Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI) 289
UEFI and BIOS Limitations 290
UEFI Support 291
BIOS Setup 292
Running or Accessing the BIOS Setup Program 292
BIOS Setup Menus 292
Maintenance Menu 293
Main Menu 294
Advanced Menus 295
Security Menu 311
Power Menu 312
Boot Menu (Boot Sequence, Order) 314
Exit Menu 315
Additional BIOS Setup Features 316
PnP BIOS 317
PnP Device IDs 318
ACPI 318
BIOS/MBR Error Messages 319
BIOS Boot Error Messages 320
MBR Boot Error Messages 322
6 Memory 325
Memory Basics 325
ROM 327
DRAM 327
Cache Memory: SRAM 329
Memory Standards 331
Speed and Performance 332
Fast Page Mode DRAM 335
Extended Data Out RAM 336
SDRAM 337
DDR SDRAM 338
DDR2 SDRAM 340
DDR3 SDRAM 342
DDR4 SDRAM 344
RDRAM 345
Memory Modules 346
Registered Modules 351
SDR DIMM Details 352
DDR DIMM Details 353
DDR2 DIMM Details 353
DDR3 DIMM Details 353
Determining a Memory Module’s Size and Features 354
Memory Banks 356
Memory Module Speed 357
Parity and ECC 357
Parity Checking 359
How Parity Checking Works 359
ECC 360
RAM Upgrades 361
Upgrade Options and Strategies 362
Purchasing Memory 364
Replacing Modules with Higher-Capacity Versions 366
Installing Memory Modules 366
Troubleshooting Memory 368
Memory Defect Isolation Procedures 372
The System Logical Memory Layout 374
7 The ATA/IDE Interface 377
An Overview of the IDE Interface 377
Precursors to IDE 377
IDE Origins 378
Origins of ATA 379
ATA Standards 380
ATA-1 (ATA Interface for Disk Drives) 382
ATA-2 (ATA Interface with Extensions-2) 382
ATA-3 (ATA Interface-3) 383
ATA/ATAPI-4 (ATA with Packet Interface Extension-4) 383
ATA/ATAPI-5 (ATA with Packet Interface-5) 384
ATA/ATAPI-6 (ATA with Packet Interface-6) 385
ATA/ATAPI-7 (ATA with Packet Interface-7) 386
ATA/ATAPI-8 386
PATA 387
PATA I/O Connector 387
PATA I/O Cable 390
Longer or Rounded Cables 392
PATA Signals 392
PATA Dual-Drive Configurations 393
PATA PIO Transfer Modes 396
PATA DMA Transfer Modes 396
SATA 398
SATA Standards and Performance 398
SATA Express 399
SATA Cables and Connectors 401
eSATA 404
SATA Configuration 407
Advanced Host Controller Interface (AHCI) 408
Non-Volatile Memory Express (NVMe) 409
SATA Transfer Modes 409
ATA Features 410
ATA Commands 410
ATA Security Mode 411
Host Protected Area 412
ATAPI 413
ATA Drive Capacity Limitations 413
Prefixes for Decimal and Binary Multiples 414
BIOS Limitations 415
CHS Versus LBA 416
CHS/LBA and LBA/CHS Conversions 417
BIOS Commands Versus ATA Commands 418
CHS Limitations (the 528MB Barrier) 419
CHS Translation (Breaking the 528MB Barrier) 421
The 2.1GB and 4.2GB Barriers 423
LBA-Assist Translation 425
The 8.4GB Barrier 427
The 137GB Barrier and Beyond 429
Operating System and Other Software Limitations 430
GPT and the 2.2TB Barrier 432
PATA/SATA RAID 434
Software RAID 436
8 Magnetic Storage Principles 439
Magnetic Storage 439
History of Magnetic Storage 439
How Magnetic Fields Are Used to Store Data 440
Read/Write Head Designs 443
Ferrite 444
Metal-In-Gap 444
Thin-Film 444
Magneto-Resistive Heads 445
Giant Magneto-Resistive Heads 446
Head Sliders 448
Data-Encoding Schemes 450
Frequency Modulation Encoding 451
Modified FM Encoding 451
Run Length Limited Encoding 452
Encoding Scheme Comparisons 453
Partial-Response, Maximum-Likelihood Decoders 455
Capacity Measurements 455
Areal Density 456
Perpendicular Magnetic Recording 458
9 Hard Disk Storage 461
Definition of a Hard Disk 461
Hard Drive Advancements 462
Form Factors 463
5 1/4-Inch Drive 464
3 1/2-Inch Drive 465
2 1/2-Inch Drive 465
1.8-Inch Drive 466
1-Inch Drives 466
HDD Operation 466
The Ultimate HDD Analogy 469
Tracks and Sectors 470
ECC 472
Disk Formatting 477
Basic HDD Components 482
Hard Disk Platters (Disks) 483
Recording Media 484
Read/Write Heads 485
Head Actuator Mechanisms 487
Air Filters 494
Hard Disk Temperature Acclimation 495
Spindle Motors 495
Logic Boards 496
Cables and Connectors 497
Configuration Items 497
Hard Disk Features 498
Capacity 498
Performance 500
Reliability 504
10 Flash and Removable Storage 507
Alternative Storage Devices 507
Flash Memory Devices 507
CompactFlash 509
SmartMedia 509
MultiMediaCard 510
SecureDigital 510
Sony Memory Stick 510
ATA Flash PC Card 511
xD-Picture Card 511
SSD (Solid-State Drive) 511
USB Flash Drives 516
Comparing Flash Memory Devices 517
SD Cards Speed Class and UHS Speed Class Markings 519
File Systems Used by Flash Memory 520
Flash Card Readers 520
Card Readers 520
ReadyBoost Support 521
Cloud-Based Storage 522
Floppy Disk Drives 523
Tape Drives 523
11 Optical Storage 525
Optical Technology 525
CD-Based Optical Technology 526
CDs: A Brief History 526
CD Construction and Technology 527
Mass-Producing CDs 527
Writable CDs 539
MultiRead Specifications 545
MultiPlay and MultiAudio 547
DVD 547
DVD History 548
DVD Construction and Technology 549
DVD Tracks and Sectors 550
Handling DVD Errors 554
DVD Capacity (Sides and Layers) 555
Data Encoding on the DVD Disc 558
Recordable DVD Standards 559
Multiformat Rewritable DVD Drives 566
BD 567
HD-DVD 569
Optical Disc Formats 570
CD Formats 570
DVD Formats and Standards 578
Optical Disc File Systems 582
Ripping/Copying Discs 587
“For Music Use Only” CD-R/RW Discs 588
CD Copy Protection 588
CD Digital Rights Management 589
DVD and Blu-ray Copy Protection 589
Optical Drive Performance Specifications 593
CD Data Transfer Rate 593
CD Drive Speed 593
DVD Drive Speed 595
Access Time 598
Buffer/Cache 598
Direct Memory Access and Ultra-DMA 598
Interface 598
Loading Mechanism 599
Other Drive Features 600
How to Reliably Record Optical Discs 600
Booting from a Floppy Disk with Optical Drive Support 601
Bootable Optical Discs—El Torito 601
LightScribe and LabelFlash 602
Troubleshooting Optical Drives 602
Caring for Optical Media 606
Updating the Firmware in an Optical Drive 607
12 Video Hardware 609
Display Adapters and Monitors 609
Video Display Adapters 610
Video Adapter Types 610
Integrated Video/Motherboard Chipsets 611
CPUs with Integrated Video 616
Video Adapter Components 617
Identifying the Video and System Chipsets 619
Video RAM 620
The DAC 624
Video Display Interfaces 624
The System Interface 624
The Display Interface 626
TV Display Interfaces 641
3D Graphics Accelerators 642
How 3D Accelerators Work 642
APIs 645
Dual-GPU Scene Rendering 648
Monitors 650
Display Specifications 650
LCD Technology 661
LED Backlit Technology 663
CRT Display Technology 663
Plasma Display Technology 665
LCD and DLP Projectors 666
Using Multiple Monitors 667
Dualview 667
Homogeneous Adapters 668
Heterogeneous Adapters 668
Choosing the Best Display Hardware for a Particular Task 668
Video Troubleshooting and Maintenance 669
Troubleshooting Video Cards and Drivers 670
Video Drivers 672
Maintaining Monitors 672
Testing Monitors 673
Adjusting Monitors 674
Bad Pixels 675
Troubleshooting Monitors 676
Repairing Monitors 677
13 Audio Hardware 679
Audio Hardware Concepts and Terms 680
The Nature of Sound 680
Evaluating the Quality of Your Audio Hardware 680
Sampling 681
Early PC Sound Cards 682
Limitations of Sound Blaster Pro Compatibility 682
Microsoft Windows and Audio Support 682
DirectX and Audio Support Hardware 683
Core Audio APIs for Windows 683
3D Gaming Audio Standards 684
Legacy Audio Support Through Virtualization 685
Audio Hardware Features 686
Basic Connectors 686
Audio Signal Processing Methods 688
Advanced Audio Features 688
Volume Control 690
MIDI Support Features 691
Data Compression 692
Sound Drivers 693
Sound Cards for Sound Producers 693
Motherboard Chipsets with Integrated Audio 694
Intel “Azalia” HD Audio 694
Troubleshooting PC Audio Problems 694
Sound Card and Onboard Audio Problems 695
Speakers 698
Speaker Selection Criteria 698
Theater and Surround Sound Considerations 699
Microphones 700
14 External I/O Interfaces 703
Introduction to Input/Output Ports 703
Serial Versus Parallel 703
Universal Serial Bus (USB) 704
IEEE 1394 (FireWire or i.LINK) 718
Comparing USB and IEEE 1394 (FireWire) 722
Thunderbolt Technology 728
Low-Speed External Connections 729
Serial Ports 730
Parallel Ports 734
15 Input Devices 739
Keyboards 739
Enhanced 101-Key Keyboard 739
103/104-Key Windows Keyboard 740
Keyboard Technology 742
Keyswitch Design 742
The Keyboard Interface 747
Typematic Functions 749
Keyboard Scan Codes 749
International Keyboard Layouts 750
Keyboard/Mouse Interface Connectors 751
USB Keyboards 753
Keyboards with Special Features 754
Keyboard Troubleshooting and Repair 754
Cleaning a Keyboard 755
Keyboard Recommendations 756
Pointing Devices 757
Mouse Sensitivity 758
Ball-Type Mice 758
Optical Mice 759
Pointing Device Interface Types 760
Scroll Wheels 762
Mouse Troubleshooting 764
Cleaning Your Mouse 765
Alternative Pointing Devices 765
Touchscreen Technology 770
Wireless Input Devices 771
Power Management Features of Wireless Input Devices 772
Troubleshooting Wireless Input Devices 773
16 Internet Connectivity 775
Internet Connectivity Trends 775
Broadband Internet Access Types 775
Cable TV 776
Digital Subscriber Line 779
Wireless Broadband 783
Cellular Broadband 3G and 4G Services 783
Satellite Broadband 784
ISDN 787
Leased Lines 788
Comparing High-Speed Internet Access 789
Dial-Up Modems 790
56Kbps Modems 791
Internet Connection Security 794
Having a Backup Plan in Case of Service Interruptions 795
Sharing Your Internet Connection 795
Routers for Internet Sharing 796
Modem/Router Status LEDs 797
17 Local Area Networking 799
Defining a Network 799
Types of Networks 800
Requirements for a Network 801
Client/Server Versus Peer Networks 801
Client/Server Networks 802
Peer-to-Peer Networks 803
Comparing Client/Server and Peer-to-Peer Networks 804
Network Architecture Overview 804
Wired Ethernet 806
Wireless Ethernet 807
Bluetooth 813
Hardware Elements of Your Network 814
NICs for Wired Ethernet Networks 814
Network Cables for Wired Ethernet 816
Wired Network Topologies 824
Switches for Ethernet Networks 827
Wireless Ethernet Hardware 831
Network Protocols 836
IP and TCP/IP 836
IPX and NetBEUI 837
Other Home Networking Solutions 838
HomePNA 838
Power Line Networking 839
Putting Your Network Together 840
Network Adapters 840
Cables and Connections Between Computers 842
Switch/Access Point 842
18 Power Supplies 845
The Power Supply 845
Primary Function and Operation 845
Voltage Rails 846
The Power Good Signal 848
Power Supply Form Factors 849
Modern Form Factors 852
Power Switches 866
ATX and Newer 866
PC/XT/AT and LPX Power Switches 868
Motherboard Power Connectors 870
AT/LPX Power Supply Connectors 870
ATX and ATX12V Motherboard Power Connectors 872
Backward and Forward Compatibility 885
Dell Proprietary (Nonstandard) ATX Design 887
Additional Power Connectors 887
Peripheral Power Connectors 887
Floppy Power Connectors 888
Serial ATA Power Connectors 889
PCI Express Auxiliary Graphics Power Connectors 890
Power Supply Specifications 893
Power Supply Loading 893
Power Supply Ratings 895
Other Power Supply Specifications 896
Power Factor Correction 898
SLI-Ready and CrossFireX Certifications 900
Safety Certifications 900
Power-Use Calculations 901
Power Savings 903
80 Plus 903
ENERGY STAR 904
Advanced Power Management 904
Advanced Configuration and Power Interface 905
Power Cycling 908
Power Supply Troubleshooting 911
Overloaded Power Supplies 912
Inadequate Cooling 913
Using Digital Multimeters 913
Specialized Test Equipment 916
Power Supply Recommendations 918
Modular Cables 919
Sources for Replacement Power Supplies 919
Power-Protection Systems 919
Surge Suppressors (Protectors) 921
Network and Phone Line Surge Protectors 922
Line Conditioners 922
Backup Power 922
Real-Time Clock/Nonvolatile RAM (CMOS RAM) Batteries 925
Modern CMOS Batteries 925
Obsolete or Unique CMOS Batteries 927
CMOS Battery Troubleshooting 928
19 Building or Upgrading Systems 929
System Components 929
Before You Start: How to Decide What to Build 931
Case and Power Supply 933
Processor 934
Motherboard 935
Memory 936
I/O Ports 937
Hard Disk/Solid-State Drives 938
Removable Storage 939
Input Devices 939
Video Card and Display 940
Audio Hardware 940
Accessories 941
Hardware and Software Resources 942
System Assembly and Disassembly 942
Assembly Preparation 943
Installing the CPU and Heatsink 946
Installing Memory Modules 952
Mounting the New Motherboard in the Case 953
Preparing a Modular Power Supply 958
Connecting the Power Supply 958
Connecting I/O and Other Cables to the Motherboard 961
Installing the Drives 962
Installing a Video Card 967
Installing Additional Expansion Cards 969
Replacing the Cover and Connecting External Cables 969
System Startup 969
Installing the OS 971
Troubleshooting New Installations 972
20 PC Diagnostics, Testing, and Maintenance 975
PC Diagnostics 975
Diagnostics Software 975
The POST 976
Peripheral Diagnostics 989
Operating System Diagnostics 989
Commercial Diagnostics Software 990
Free/User Supported Diagnostics 991
The Boot Process 991
The Hardware Boot Process: Operating System Independent 992
The DOS Boot Process 996
The Windows 9x/Me Boot Process 997
Windows 2000/XP Startup 997
Windows Vista/7 Startup 998
Windows 8 Startup 998
PC Maintenance Tools 999
Hand Tools 1000
Safety 1003
Test Equipment 1004
Special Tools for the Enthusiast 1009
Preventive Maintenance 1011
Active Preventive Maintenance Procedures 1011
Passive Preventive Maintenance Procedures 1016
Troubleshooting Tips and Techniques 1021
Repair or Replace? 1021
Basic Troubleshooting Steps 1021
Troubleshooting by Replacing Parts 1022
Troubleshooting by the Bootstrap Approach 1023
Problems During the POST 1024
Problems Running Software 1024
Problems with Adapter Cards 1025
Top Troubleshooting Problems 1025
9780789750006, ToC, 2/18/2013
Scott Mueller is the president of Mueller Technical Research (MTR), an international research and corporate training firm. Since 1982, MTR has produced the industry’s most in-depth, accurate, and effective seminars, books, articles, videos, and FAQs covering PC hardware and data recovery. MTR maintains a client list that includes Fortune 500 companies, the U.S. and foreign governments, major software and hardware corporations, as well as PC enthusiasts and entrepreneurs. Scott’s seminars have been presented to several thousands of PC support professionals throughout the world.
Scott personally teaches seminars nationwide covering all aspects of PC hardware (including troubleshooting, maintenance, repair, and upgrade), A+ Certification, and data recovery/forensics. He has a knack for making technical topics not only understandable, but entertaining; his classes are never boring! If you have ten or more people to train, Scott can design and present a custom seminar for your organization.
Although he has taught classes virtually nonstop since 1982, Scott is best known as the author of the longest-running, most popular, and most comprehensive PC hardware book in the world, Upgrading and Repairing PCs, which has become the core of an entire series of books, including Upgrading and Repairing PCs, Upgrading and Repairing Laptops, and Upgrading and Repairing Windows.
Scott’s premiere work, Upgrading and Repairing PCs, has sold more than two million copies, making it by far the most popular and longest-running PC hardware book on the market today. Scott has been featured in Forbes magazine and has written several articles for PC World magazine, Maximum PC magazine, the Scott Mueller Forum, various computer and automotive newsletters, and the Upgrading and Repairing PCs website.
Contact MTR directly if you have a unique book, article, or video project in mind or if you want Scott to conduct a custom PC troubleshooting, repair, maintenance, upgrade, or data-recovery seminar tailored for your organization:
Mueller Technical Research
Web: www.muellertech.com
Email: info@muellertech.com
Forum: www.forum.scottmueller.com
Scott has a forum exclusively for his readers at www.forum.scottmueller.com. Anybody can view the forum, but posting is only available to registered members.
If you have suggestions or comments about the book or new book or article topics you would like to see covered, send them to info@muellertech.com.
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