Table of Contents

Preface ix Chapter 1 The Golden Ticket 1 Chapter 2 The Beautiful World 11 Chapter 3 P and NP 29 Chapter 4 The Hardest Problems in NP 51 Chapter 5 The Prehistory of P versus NP 71 Chapter 6 Dealing with Hardness 89 Chapter 7 Proving P <> NP 109 Chapter 8 Secrets 123 Chapter 9 Quantum 143 Chapter 10 The Future 155 Acknowledgments 163 Chapter Notes and Sources 165 Index 171

About the Author

Lance Fortnow is professor and chair of the School of Computer Science at the Georgia Institute of Technology. He founded and coauthors the Computational Complexity blog.

Reviews

"As Lance Fortnow describes in his new book, The Golden Ticket: P, NP and the Search for the Impossible, P versus NP is 'one of the great open problems in all of mathematics' not only because it is extremely difficult to solve but because it has such obvious practical applications. It is the dream of total ease, of the confidence that there is an efficient way to calculate nearly everything, 'from cures to deadly diseases to the nature of the universe,' even 'an algorithmic process to recognize greatness.'... To postulate that P ? NP, as Fortnow does, is to allow for a world of mystery, difficulty, and frustration--but also of discovery and inquiry, of pleasures pleasingly delayed."--Alexander Nazaryan, New Yorker "Fortnow effectively initiates readers into the seductive mystery and importance of P and NP problems."--Publishers Weekly "Fortnow's book is just the ticket for bringing one of the major theoretical problems of our time to the level of the average citizen--and yes, that includes elected officials."--Veit Elser, Science "Without bringing formulas or computer code into the narrative, Fortnow sketches the history of this class of questions, convincingly demonstrates their surprising equivalence, and reveals some of the most far-reaching implications that a proof of P = NP would bring about. These might include tremendous advances in biotechnology (for instance, more cures for cancer), information technology, and even the arts. Verdict: Through story and analogy, this relatively slim volume manages to provide a thorough, accessible explanation of a deep mathematical question and its myriad consequences. An engaging, informative read for a broad audience."--J.J.S. Boyce, Library Journal "[This] as-yet-unsolved problem--identified by mathematicians as the P-NP problem--raises fundamental questions about just how far society can ride the technological wave triggered by the computer revolution. Fortnow unfolds a fascinating dual-track story of how this problem first emerged, Western researchers encountering it while trying to maximize computer efficiency, Russian analysts confronting it while puzzling over the persistent need for perebor ('brute force search'). Readers watch as the P-NP problem attracts investigators in cryptography, biology, quantum physics, and social networking--and frustrates them all. Fortnow allows nonspecialist readers to glimpse the conceptual difficulties here (try 'nondeterministic polynomial time,' for example). But he mercifully frames his discussion largely in nontechnical terms. Even readers averse to mathematics will share in the intellectual stimulation of pondering a riddle compelling us to ask what we should hope for--and fear--in replacing human brains with computer algorithms. A provocative reminder of the real-world consequences of a theoretical enigma."--Bryce Christensen, Booklist "The definition of this problem is tricky and technical, but in The Golden Ticket, Lance Fortnow cleverly sidesteps the issue with a boiled-down version. P is the collection of problems we can solve quickly, NP is the collection of problems we would like to solve. If P = NP, computers can answer all the questions we pose and our world is changed forever. It is an oversimplification, but Fortnow, a computer scientist at Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, knows his stuff and aptly illustrates why NP problems are so important."--Jacob Aron, New Scientist "Fortnow's book does a fine job of showing why the tantalizing question is an important one, with implications far beyond just computer science."--Rob Hardy, Commercial Dispatch "A great book... [Lance Fortnow] has written precisely the book about P vs. NP that the interested layperson or IT professional wants and needs."--Scott Aaronson, Shtetl-Optimized blog "[The Golden Ticket] is a book on a technical subject aimed at a general audience... Lance's mix of technical accuracy with evocative story telling works."--Michael Trick, Michael Trick's Operations Research Blog "Thoroughly researched and reviewed. Anyone from a smart high school student to a computer scientist is sure to get a lot of this book. The presentation is beautiful. There are few formulas but lots of facts."--Daniel Lemire's Blog "An entertaining discussion of the P versus NP problem."--Andrew Binstock, Dr. Dobb's "The Golden Ticket is an extremely accessible and enjoyable treatment of the most important question of theoretical computer science, namely whether P is equal to NP... [I]t is a very pleasant read for those specializing in discrete mathematics, and understandable to anyone with an undergraduate knowledge of mathematics."--Choice "The book is accessible and useful for practically anyone from smart high school students to specialists... [P]erhaps the interest sparked by this book will be the 'Golden Ticket' for further accessible work in this area. And perhaps P=NP will start to become as famous as E=mc2."--Michael Trick, INFORMS Journal of Computing