This text provides prospective and current teachers with a concise, non-technical, and practical guide to conducting a full range of high-quality classroom assessments. The text emphasizes assessment in the context of the realities of teaching and teacher decision-making in an era of standards-based education. Assessment methods are integrated with instruction and presented according to when teachers evaluate students (before, during, and after an instructional unit), the learning targets that are measured, and standards emphasized in state-wide testing. There is considerable emphasis on the nature of learning targets and how different assessments are most appropriate for different targets. For each assessment technique, suggestions for effective practice are presented with examples, case studies, and teacher interviews. This edition includes additional emphasis on formative assessment for student learning.

About the Author

James H. McMillan is professor and chair of foundations of education at Virginia Commonwealth University in Richmond, Virginia, where he teaches educational research and assessment courses and directs the Research and Evaluation Track of the PhD in education program. He is also director of the Metropolitan Ed-ucational Research Consortium, a partnership of Virginia Commonwealth University and seven Richmond-area school divisions that conducts and disseminates action and applied research. His current research interests include classroom and large-scale assessment. He has recently published the third edition of Classroom Assessment: Principles and Practice for Effective Standards-Based Instruction and edited Formative Classroom Assessment: Theory into Practice. He has authored three educa-tional research methods textbooks and published numerous articles in journals, including the American Educational Research Journal, the Journal of Educational Psychology, Contemporary Educational Psychology, and Educa-tional Measurement: Issues and Practice.

Table of Contents

Preface xi CHAPTER 1 The Role of Assessment in Teaching 1 Integrating Instruction and Assessment 3 The Realities of Teaching 3 Instructional Decision Making and Assessment 5 What Is Classroom Assessment? 9 Purpose 9 Measurement 10 Evaluation 11 Use 12 Diagnosis 12 Grading 12 Instruction 12 Research on Learning, Motivation, Instruction, and Curriculum: Implications for Assessment 13 Recent Trends in Classroom Assessment 15 The Influence of Large-Scale Accountability Testing 19 Teachers' Classroom Assessment and Grading Practices Decision Making 21 Assessment Standards for Teachers 23 ' Summary 24 ' What's Coming 24 ' Self-Instructional Review Exercises 25 ' Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises 26 ' Suggestions for Action Research 26 CHAPTER 2 Cognitive Learning Targets and Standards 28 Knowing Where Your Students Are Going 29 Educational Goals 29 Objectives 29 Standards 31 Criteria 34 Expectations 35 Learning Targets 36 Taxonomies of Educational Objectives 38 Bloom's Taxonomy of Objectives 38 Bloom's Revised Taxonomy of Objectives 40 Marzano and Kendall's New Taxonomy 40 Types of Knowledge Targets 42 Knowledge Representation 42 Declarative Knowledge and Understanding 45 Procedural Knowledge and Understanding 45 Deep Understanding and Reasoning 46 Sources for Learning Targets 48 Professional Preparation 48 Textbooks 49 Existing Lists of Objectives 50 National and State Standards 51 Criteria for Selecting Learning Targets and Standards 53 CONTENTS 88422 00 i-xiv r2 th 7/22/10 9:05 PM Page iii ' Summary 55 ' Self-Instructional Review Exercises 56 ' Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises 57 ' Suggestions for Action Research 58 CHAPTER 3 High-Quality Classroom Assessment 60 What Is High-Quality Classroom Assessment? 61 Clear and Appropriate Learning Targets 61 Alignment of Assessment Methods and Learning Targets 62 Types of Assessment Methods 62 Matching Targets with Methods 65 Knowledge and Simple Understanding 65 Deep Understanding and Reasoning 66 Skills 67 Products 67 Affect 67 Validity 68 What Is a Valid Assessment? 68 How Is Validity Determined? 68 Content-Related Evidence 69 Criterion-Related Evidence 71 Construct-Related Evidence 72 Reliability 73 What Is a Reliable Score? 73 Assessment Error 75 How Is Reliability Determined? 77 Sources of Reliability Evidence 77 Evidence Based on Stability 77 Evidence Based on Equivalent Forms 77 Evidence Based on Internal Consistency 78 Evidence Based on Scorer or Rater Consistency 78 Evidence Based on Decision Consistency 80 Factors Influencing Reliability Estimates 80 Fairness 80 Student Knowledge of Learning Targets and Assessments 81 Opportunity to Learn 81 Prerequisite Knowledge and Skills 82 Avoiding Student Stereotyping 82 Avoiding Bias in Assessment Tasks and Procedures 82 Accommodating Special Needs and English Language Learners 84 A Model of Fairness in Classroom Assessment 84 Positive Consequences 86 Positive Consequences for Students 86 Positive Consequences for Teachers 88 Alignment 88 Practicality and Efficiency 91 Teacher Familiarity with the Method 91 Time Required 91 Complexity of Administration 92 Ease of Scoring 92 Ease of Interpretation 92 Cost 93 ' Summary 93 ' Self-Instructional Review Exercises 94 ' Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises 95 ' Suggestions for Action Research 96 ' Endnote 97 CHAPTER 4 Formative Assessment I: Gathering Evidence 98 What Is Formative Assessment? 99 Gathering Informal Formative Assessment Evidence 102 iv C O N T E N T S N 88422 00 i-xiv r2 th 7/22/10 9:05 PM Page iv Informal Formative Assessment Observation 103 Assessing Nonverbal Behavior 103 Assessing Voice-Related Cues 108 Beginning of Year Observations 111 Sources of Error in Informal Observation 112 Informal Oral Questioning 114 Characteristics of Effective Questioning to Assess Student Progress 115 Formal Formative Assessment 120 Preinstructional Structured Exercises 121 Pretests 121 Homework 122 In-Class Assignments 123 Quizzes and Unit Tests 123 Classroom Response Systems 124 Benchmark Assessments 125 Teacher Expectations 126 ' Summary 128 ' Self-Instructional Review Exercises 129 ' Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises 130 ' Suggestions for Action Research 132 CHAPTER 5 Formative Assessment II: Feedback and Instructional Adjustments 133 Providing Effective Feedback 134 Types of Feedback 135 Goal Directed 135 Scaffolded 136 Self-Referenced 137 Standards-Referenced 138 Norm-Referenced 138 Factors to Consider in Determining the Nature of the Feedback 139 Amount 139 Timing 140 Mode 141 Audience 141 Type of Task 141 Differentiated Formative Feedback 142 Learner Level of Ability 142 Grade Level 143 Subject 143 Anticipating Feedback 144 What About Giving Praise? 145 Instructional Adjustments 147 Mastery Learning 148 Differentiated Instruction 149 Learning Progressions 150 A Model of Instructional Adjustments for Formative Feedback 152 ' Summary 152 ' Self-Instructional Review Exercises 154 ' Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises 154 ' Suggestions for Action Research 155 CHAPTER 6 Planning and Implementing Classroom Summative Assessments 156 Planning and Summative Assessment 158 Representative Sampling 158 Number and Length of Assessments 159 Use of Assessments Provided by Textbook and Test Publishers 160 Preparing Students for Summative Assessments 161 C O N T E N T S v 88422 00 i-xiv r2 th 7/22/10 9:05 PM Page v Scheduling the Summative Assessment 162 When Summative Assessments Should Be Constructed 162 Putting Summative Assessments Together 165 Preparing Test Directions 165 Arranging Items 166 Physical Layout 166 Administering Summative Assessments 166 Unit/Chapter Tests 167 ' Summary 168 ' Self-Instructional Review Exercises 169 ' Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises 169 ' Suggestions for Action Research 170 CHAPTER 7 Selected-Response Assessment: Multiple Choice, Binary Choice, and Matching 171 Multiple-Choice Items 172 Assessing Knowledge and Comprehension 176 Assessing Application 177 Assessing Deep Understanding and Reasoning 179 Binary-Choice Items 181 Assessing Knowledge and Comprehension 182 Assessing Deep Understanding and Reasoning 184 Assessing Application 185 Matching Items 186 Interpretive Exercises 188 Assessing Comprehension 190 Assessing Deep Understanding and Reasoning 191 ' Summary 193 ' Self-Instructional Review Exercises 193 ' Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises 194 ' Suggestions for Action Research 196 CHAPTER 8 Constructed-Response Assessment: Completion, Short-Answer, and Essay Items 197 Completion Items 198 Short-Answer Items 200 Assessing Knowledge and Comprehension 200 Assessing Deep Understanding and Reasoning 202 Essay Items 204 Constructing Essay Items 209 Scoring Essays 212 ' Summary 215 ' Self-Instructional Review Exercises 216 ' Answers to Self-Instructional Review Items 217 ' Suggestions for Action Research 218 ' Endnote 218 CHAPTER 9 Constructed-Response Assessment: Performance Assessment 219 What Is Performance Assessment? 220 Strengths and Limitations of Performance Assessments 221 Learning Targets for Performance Assessments 224 Deep Understanding 224 Reasoning 224 vi C O N T E N T S N 88422 00 i-xiv r2 th 7/22/10 9:05 PM Page vi Skills 224 Communication and Presentations Skills 224 Psychomotor Skills 226 Products 228 Constructing Performance Tasks 229 Restricted- and Extended-Type Performance Tasks 229 Performance Task Descriptions and Contexts 231 Performance Task Question or Prompt 232 Performance Criteria 239 Rubrics 240 Rating Scales 240 Developing Rubrics 243 ' Summary 251 ' Self-Instructional Review Exercises 253 ' Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises 254 ' Suggestions for Action Research 255 ' Endnote 255 CHAPTER 10 Constructed-Response Assessment: Portfolios 256 What Are Portfolios? 257 Advantages 259 Disadvantages 261 Planning for Portfolio Assessment 262 Purpose 263 Learning Targets 263 Uses 264 Identify Physical Structure 265 Determine Sources of Content 265 Determine Student Self-Reflective Guidelines and Scoring Criteria 265 Implementing Portfolio Assessment 268 Review with Students 268 Supplying Portfolio Content 268 Student Self-Reflection 270 Teacher Evaluation 274 Checklists of Contents 274 Portfolio Structure Evaluation 274 Evaluations of Individual Entries 276 Evaluation of Entire Contents 276 Student--Teacher Conferences 277 Electronic Portfolios 278 ' Summary 280 ' Self-Instructional Review Exercises 281 ' Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises 282 ' Suggestions for Action Research 283 CHAPTER 11 Assessing Affective Traits, Dispositions, and Beliefs 284 Are Affective and Student Belief Targets Important? 285 What Are Affective Traits and Learning Targets? 287 Attitude Targets 288 Value Targets 289 Motivation Targets 290 Academic Self-Concept Targets 291 Social Relationship Targets 291 Classroom Environment Targets 292 Affective Domain of the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives 294 Methods of Assessing Affective Targets 294 Teacher Observation 296 Unstructured Observation 297 Structured Observation 298 Student Self-Report 300 Student Interview 300 C O N T E N T S vii 88422 00 i-xiv r2 th 7/22/10 9:05 PM Page vii Questionnaires and Surveys 302 Constructed-Response Formats 302 Selected-Response Formats 303 Constructing Self-Report Items 309 Student Self-Assessment 310 Peer Ratings 317 Guess-Who Approach 318 Sociometric Approach 318 Which Method or Combination of Methods Should I Use? 319 Ensuring Anonymity 320 ' Summary 322 ' Self-Instructional Review Exercises 323 ' Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises 324 ' Suggestions for Action Research 325 CHAPTER 12 Assessing Special Needs and ELL Students 326 Assessing Students with Special Needs 327 Legal Mandates 327 Assessing Students for Identification 330 Mild Mental Retardation 333 Sensory Impairment 333 Physical Impairment 334 Learning Disability 334 Emotional Disturbance 334 Attention Deficits 335 Hyperactivity 335 Assessment Problems Encountered by Students with Special Needs 336 Comprehension Difficulties 338 Auditory Difficulties 339 Visual Difficulties 339 Time Constraint Difficulties 339 Anxiety 340 Embarrassment 340 Variability of Behavior 340 Assessment Accommodations 340 Adaptations in Test Directions, Construction, and Format 341 Short-Answer and Essay Items 342 Multiple-Choice Items 344 Binary-Choice Items 344 Completion Items 344 Performance Assessments 345 Portfolios 345 Adaptations in Test Administration 346 Adaptations in Testing Site 346 Grading and Reporting Accommodations 348 Grading Accommodations 349 IEP Grading 349 Shared Grading 349 Contracting 350 Reporting Accommodations 351 English Language Learners in Inclusive Settings 352 Factors Influencing ELL Assessments 352 Language and Literacy Skill Factors 352 Educational Background Factors 353 Cultural Factors 353 Identifying Difficulties that ELL Students Experience in Classroom Assessment 353 Difficulty in Comprehending Test Language 353 Difficulty in Expressing What Is Known 354 Lack of Content and Cultural Knowledge in Test Items 354 Unfamiliarity with Different Types of Tests 354 Emotional Stress 355 Assessment Accommodations and Modifications 355 Test Format 355 Test-Taking Procedures 356 Evaluating Performance and Providing Feedback 356 ' Summary 357 viii C O N T E N T S N 88422 00 i-xiv r2 th 7/22/10 9:05 PM Page viii ' Self-Instructional Review Exercises 358 ' Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises 360 ' Suggestions for Action Research 362 CHAPTER 13 Grading and Reporting Student Performance 363 Teachers' Judgments in Grading 364 Functions of Marking and Grading 367 Providing Feedback 367 Basis of Comparison 369 Norm-Referenced Grading 369 Standards-Based Grading 370 Motivation 372 Incorporating Factors Other Than Performance 374 Aptitude 375 Improvement 375 Effort 376 Attendance 377 Attitudes 378 Approaches to Marking and Grading 378 Letter Grades 378 Percentage Correct 380 Pass--Fail 382 Rubrics/Checklists 382 Standards-Based 383 Written Descriptions 384 Mixed Methods 385 Determining Report Card (Composite) Grades 385 Select What to Include in the Final Grade 386 Select Weights for Each Assessment 387 Combining Different Scores and Grades 389 Weighted Categories versus Total Points Methods 389 Using Judgment when Combining Grades 392 Cheating 393 Recognizing Teacher Fallibility 393 Reporting Student Progress to Parents 395 Report Cards 396 Progress Reports 396 Parent--Teacher Conferences 397 Student--Led Conferences 398 ' Summary 398 ' Self-Instructional Review Exercises 400 ' Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises 401 ' Suggestions for Action Research 401 CHAPTER 14 Administering, Interpreting, and Using Standardized and State Standards-Based Tests 403 Fundamental Descriptive Statistics 403 Frequency Distributions 404 Measures of Central Tendency 406 Measures of Variability 407 Measures of Relationship 409 Scatterplot 410 Correlation Coefficient 410 Types of Standardized Tests 411 Norm-Referenced Achievement Test Batteries 413 Aptitude Tests 414 Readiness Tests 415 Standards-Based State and District Tests 415 Benchmark Assessments 417 C O N T E N T S ix 88422 00 i-xiv r2 th 7/22/10 9:05 PM Page ix Types of Derived Standardized Test Scores 418 Standard Scores 418 Z-Score 418 Normal Curve Equivalent 419 Stanines 419 Scaled Score 420 Deviation IQ Scores 420 Other Standard Scores 420 Grade Equivalent Scores 421 Interpreting Standardized and State Standards-Based Test Scores 421 Standard Error of Measurement 421 Alignment 423 Standards-Based/Criterion-Referenced Interpretations 423 Understanding Standardized and Standards- Based Test Score Reports 425 Using Standardized and Standards-Based/ Criterion-Referenced Test Scores 426 Interpreting Test Reports for Parents 429 Preparing Students to Take Standardized Tests 431 Administering Standardized and Standards- Based Tests 436 ' Summary 437 ' Self-Instructional Review Exercises 438 ' Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises 439 ' Suggestions for Action Research 440 APPENDICES A The Scope of a Teacher's Profesional Role and Responsibilities for Student Assessment 441 B The Student Evaluation Standards 445 Glossary 448 References 453 Index 461 x C O N T E N T S N 88422 00 i-xiv r2 th 7/22/10 9:05 PM Page x